I Came, I Saw, I Blogged Part 3

Julius Caesar: The Civil War

(Years Covered: 52BC to 47BC)

Caesar was riding high, a victory like Alesia would solidify his image as a brilliant commander in both the eyes of the people, and the legions. It would also have a profound psychological effect on Pompey and the Senate in the events to come. It is at this point Brutus bids farewell to his father figure to take up a seat in the Senate. In exchange Octavius would make several trips back and forth from Rome during Caesar's remaining time in Gaul to gain real world experience and like Brutus be tutored in leadership, politics, and military command by his great uncle. Caesar would spend the next two years in Gaul, working at that same famed break neck speed to Romanize the republics newest province. All over the region he built garrisons, civic centers, trade outposts, roads, and aqueducts. He installed local government officials and imposed extreme measures of reparations against the Averni tribe any other tribes that were the supporters of Vercingetorix. Vast amounts of gold, jewels, other precious metals, and numerous other resources were seized, the lions share going to Caesar and the rest distributed among his troops which now stood at 8 legions strong. The other resource capitalized into vast wealth, slaves. Almost all low born fighting men of the former Gallic army were sold as slaves to the Aedui tribe and foreign slave traders. Also those that could not pay their share of the reparations, low or high born, were taken back to Rome as indentured servants until they worked off what they owed. Caesar broke the Gauls, it would be over 200 years before they would every rise to be any kind of threat again.

But back home trouble was a brewing. After Crassus's death a small wind of sympathy was playing out for the old man. Instead of laughing stock, he was becoming piteous. People started to question whether he had deserved the ridicule slung at him the past two decades; and in the most hushed tones questions arised about Pompey's version of events during the Spartacus Revolt (I have used the term Spartacus revolt several times now in these posts, technically its called the Servile War, but naming it after its famous leader sounds a lot cooler and recognizable). In modern terms, Pompey started to become aware of his slipping poll numbers in comparison to Caesar's meteoric rise. And with each new cart full of goodies that arrived from Gaul, its contents flung to the people in the streets, Caesar's popularity grew. Add in the fact that the talk among the soldiers in the streets were that of coveting a position in one of the Gallic legions, not wasting away here in Italy. Sure Pompey is a great commander that has always done right by them, but what has he been having them do lately, bully the old men of the Senate or chasing sheep herders and woodsman off public lands. There was no glory in that, no excitement, and certainly no profit. Pompey's most prized possession, the love and reverence of the legions, was eroding. Cato and the conservatives whispered in his ear about coming back to the fold, but Pompey refused knowing it would break the heart of his wife, Caesar's daughter Julia. Cato and the others would catch a break though as Julia died in childbirth and Caesar played his hand too soon offering up Atia's daughter Octavia, to renew their alliance, before the mourning period was over. But Pompey though incensed, played it cool. He worked in secret (or so he thought) probing the loyalty of Caesar's legions, all the while telling Atia that he was still in mourning for Julia and could not make a decision on Caesar and her's offer of marriage to Octavia.

Cornelia and Octavia

What the final straw was to break Caesar and Pompey's alliance no one knows for sure, but in one fell swoop, Pompey rejected Octavia and married Cornelia (daughter to Cato's second Scipio Metella), accepted a position of sole consulship, governorship in absentia of the provinces of Hispania Citerior (west coast of Spain) and Hispania Ulterior (south coast of Spain), and named Pro-Consul of all Hispania (making him commander of all military assets in Spain). Some also wanted to offer Pompey the office of dictator until Caesar's army was disbanded, but Cato staunchly refused; in fact, to make sure Pompey did not have too much power the conservatives removed Pompey as commander of the Italian legions, putting the Senate in direct control of those troops. It would prove to be an unwise move, including Pompey not raising objections. But even with all this he was reluctant to support any direct political or legal attacks on his old friend, but nor was he pushing any of the agenda of the pro Caesar faction in the Senate. The political stall came to an end after Pompey had recovered from a serious illness. The people of Rome and southern Italy cheered and rejoiced his recovery, he had not felt such adulation since his heyday at the head of the legions, he took it as a sign the people wanted him, not Caesar. He could not have been more wrong.

Pompey put the full force of his new titles and powers behind Cato's decree: that with Caesar's governorship term up he is to disband his armies and return to Rome to stand trial for accusations of warmongering, sedition against the Senate, bribery, and treason. Pompey had even fabricated a Parthian threat as an excuse for 2 of the legions under Caesar to head to southern Italy to take ship for Syria, the thought being the people would see that as soon as any of his legions crossed the Alps away from Caesar's gaze and influence they would be happy to abandon him. Again, Pompey made a grave miscalculation. The two legions came as instructed and settled outside the  southern Italian port city of Capu, but refused to take ship until final word came from Caesar, which never did. With two of his legions lurking south of Rome, Caesar felt safe to send his 2nd in command Mark Antony and a squad of elite and loyal soldiers (they went as bodyguards, and were not to wear their official uniforms) to Rome to gauge the situation and negotiate on his behalf. For extra assurance, Caesar used his money and influence to have Antony proclaimed Tribune, a political office but one that had religious overtures, being proclaimed by the priests of Jupiter as divine protectors of the interest of the common folk in the Senate, a sacrosanct position.

Anthony tried several times to come up with an arrangement that would protect Caesar and give the Senate what they most wanted, disbandment of the army they all feared. As I said before the war stories of Gaul, while sending awe into the hearts of the people struck a real cord of fear in the Senate and Pompey, and with two Caesar loyalist legions right in their backyard just enhanced the phobia of a ruthless bogyman. Many of the Senators were quit pleased with the proposals, but Cato, obsessed with bringing down who he saw as an insubordinate cur, used every favor, debt, threat, and senatorial procedure to deny any of the proposals from going through a full Senate vote. To him it was an all or nothing game, and he would have Caesar's head as a prize. One such proposal, drafted by Caesar himself was to take his army to Syria, by land so they would not need step foot in Italy. Once there he would wage a war of conquest against Parthia to avenge Crassus and extend Romes borders as far as India, creating an empire the Romans could boast was greater then Alexander's (fulfilling Caesar's dream of eclipsing his ideal). He even suggested Pompey join him, that with the two generals side by side no force could withstand the will of Rome. The Senate could do as they please while he was gone as long as men and material support kept flowing. Again some in the Senate saw the great appeal, Caesar would be out of the political theater and Rome made greater by taking what was essentially the entire western half of the "silk road". But again Cato and his followers rejected this as well, complaining that Caesar's proposal was unattainable due to costs and man power, over reach and administration. But the fact was that really they were scared of not that he would fail, but that he could actually pull it off. And if he did his popularity would reach such god like proportions he would be declared king without even having to utter a word, not even Pompey would be willing to oppose him. Finally, Cato had enough, on the Senate floor he proposed the "Final Decree" for vote, that Caesar was to disband and come home for trial or be declared and Enemy of the State. Before the vote could be made Antony stood with the intent of enacting his veto as Tribune, but before he could speak a Cato follower named Lentelus began shoving Antony which started a small scale brawl that saw Antony forceable removed from the building. Pompey had order restored and to continue with the session, to have Lentulus censored and apologize to Antony. However Antony had left the city by then. Pompey furiously railed against the conservatives telling them they just gave Caesar a legitimate reason to start a civil war.

Antony raced back to Caesar who by then had marched one of his legions, the XIIIth, to the Italian side of the Alps, holding the other three legions in Gaul as reserve. This march was kept quit and the Senate was caught by complete surprise to learn Caesar was already in Italy. Pompey tried to rally the Italian legions as fast as he could, but there was confusion from the officers if they should be following his orders as technically by law he was not in command, the Senate was. The question was raised by the legions and by the legalists in the Senate what would an order from the Senate look like; a command from a Senator, a senatorial decree, or from the consul (Pompey). Before anyone could answer the unbelievable happened; news that had empire shattering implications. The Rubicon, a river seen as a dividing line between local law enforcing legions and battle hardened province legions had been crossed by Caesar, he was officially invading Italy and heading for Rome. As Caesar would famously say of the occasion, "The die is cast" or as we say Fortune Favors the Bold. Pompey and 2/3rds of the Senate (Cato's Conservatives and Cicero's moderates, including Brutus) panicked, took what legions they could muster in time and sailed for Greece. Caesar with speed, preparedness, and psychological warfare had taken the capital in the opening move of the civil war with one legion and without drawing a sword. His justification, which was more then accepted by the people, local militias and officials, is that the Senate had broken the laws of the republic and Jupiter himself, by attack the people's Tribune, Mark Antony (for added effect Caesar would not allow Antony to clean up his minor cuts and bruises or change his tattered robs, to add  a visual effect to his oration of events).

Upon arrival in Rome, Caesar called up his two legions in Capu to join with the 13th. But instead of chasing after Pompey and the rest of Senate, Caesar marches west for Hispania, leaving Antony in charge of Italy. Those soldiers that did not follow Pompey across the Adriatic sea saw no issue when orders from what was left of the Senate in Rome, now filled with only Caesar's supporters, ordered them to follow Antony as their commander. Yet again Caesar and his troops would rely on remarkable speed to get to Hispania in just 27 days by land, as ships were in short supply as most were in the hands of Pompey and the fleeing Senate. Events in Spain happened so fast that no one really knows all the details of how Caesar conquered all the legions there loyal to Pompey. With lightning speed Caesar had denied Pompey and the Senate the advantage of forcing him to fight a two front war. He then made all haste East to one of the provinces of his former governorships, Illyria. But it is there that his lightning campaign came to a screeching halt.

Battle of Dyrrhachium

Caesar arrived during Pompey's attempt to muster and organize what troops he could, cornering Pompey and the Senate on the beaches outside of the city of Dyrrhachium, which is in modern day Albania. A siege commences with both sides building fortifications and a no mans land in the middle where multiple scrimmages took place each day with no clear victor. After the protracted stalemate Pompey was on the verge of running out of supplies when he was hit by a stroke of luck. Two of Caesar's Gallic Auxiliary troops were caught trying to steal from the camp treasury and fled to Pompey's camp to avoid capture. There they told Pompey where and when to strike for the weakest point in Caesar's encirclement. Pompey made an all out attack to break through Caesar's lines. Caesar tried to stop the bleeding but Pompey's men were to much, rolling back his defenses. Caesar retreated west awaiting Pompey's counter attack, girding for his defeat since his army was now in disarray and scattered. Pompey's men out numbered him 2 to 1 in the first place, but with the lack of cohesion after the siege break made that number even more dire. But one turn of luck deserves another, Pompey's attack never came. Apparently, against the wishes of the Senate who wanted to finish off Caesar, Pompey refused to give chase fearing this was all some elaborate trap laid by Caesar. Astonished, Caesar noted his luck saying, "Today the victory had been the enemy's, had there been any one among them to gain it."

Both armies took different routes looking to resupply and re-engage in the province of Thessaly, breadbasket of the Greek lands. On the way Pompey was able to use his reputation and connections in the east to amass a much larger international force, not only Romans, but also Greeks, Syrians, and troops on loan from the puppet king of Judea; the groundwork Pompey had been laying to create this army while Caesar was in Hispania, was finally coming to fruition. In contrast Caesar was already outnumbered 2 to 1 before Dyrrhachium and the fresh troops brought by Antony afterwards only brought his troop levels a little above his original amount. He knew he would not have time to call on the troops he left in Gaul before the next battle. The two armies would now meet outside the Greek city of Pharsalus. Pompey lined up his men at the far northern end of the field where Caesar was camped, east of the river Eneipus. He formed multiple columns with depth to act as an anvil while his cavalry was all formed together on the eastern flank, to swing around and act as the hammer when Caesar's troops engaged. Caesar saw through his plan and arranged his troops accordingly. Caesar's lines where much wider but not as deep, he would need to trust his troops to hold the line while he enacted his plan. His cavalry was also placed at the eastern end to look like it was there to counter Pompey's. But what Pompey did not see due to Caesar's wider lines, was the hiding 6 cohorts of his most battle hardened troops. The gap between both armies was wide, so Pompey ordered his troops to hold and let Caesar's troops tire themselves out crossing the field until they got within range of the pillas (heavy throwing spears). But Caesar's troops halted their advance just outside of range to take a breather. Once it was seen that Pompey's troops, who were anxious in waiting to throw, had relaxed their grips, Caesar's men stepped into pilla range and throw theirs and then immediately continued the charge covering the remaining ground at great speed as Pompeys men were drawing cover from Caesar's pillas. The two cavalries at this point also charged one another, but Caesar who was in personal command of his cavalry feigned retreat behind his lines and Pompey's cavalry took the bait. Once their they were surprised by an attack on their flank by the hidden troops who used their pillas as hand held spears to stab at the riders. Meanwhile Caesar wheeled around and headed straight into Pompey's eastern flank, now unprotected. Caesar's cavalry rolled up Pompey's lines and created a complete route of a superior force.

Battle of Pharsalus

Cato and Mattla took what was left of their forces and headed for Hispania, hoping to reorganize the legions there. Cicero and Brutus, along with the rest of the moderate senator's decided not to run, but instead begged for Caesar's forgiveness. He was aghast by their groveling, pulling them off the ground and embracing them as old friends. Past civil wars had seen political purge after purge of the defeated and their families, Caesar was determined not to follow that path. To the shock of all he was magnanimous to all who had opposed him, treating the whole affair as if it was a minor disagreement between comrades, reinstating every senator, general, and bureaucrat, that came to him for forgiveness. Much to the befuddlement of Cicero and Brutus, Caesar was overjoyed at the idea of  having them come back to Rome with him as colleges instead of prisoners and asked were his old friend Pompey was. Cicero informed him that after the battle, Cato and those that wanted to continue on in their resistance forced Pompey out, seeing him as the cause for their failures. Pompey and his family were headed for Egypt to seek refuge with his old ally King Ptolemy XII. Caesar was pained by this, he wanted to reconcile with Pompey and work with him. He sent his armies, the Senate and their armies home, were the Senate were to vote him dictator and Antony as governor of Italy, to secure the peninsula from any threat posed by Cato and the armies being led by Pompey's two older sons. Meanwhile, again he would take only his XIIIth legion in pursuit of Pompey.

Pompey and his family as Refugees

Word of Caesar's victory had spread like wildfire across the Mediterranean, even to Egypt before Pompey even arrived. Pompey, Cornelia, and their two young children, who were in disguise as refugees of the war in Greece, were greeted at the docks by advisors to the young boy king Ptolemy XIII, informing them that Pompey's old friend and ally Ptolemy XII had passed away and that his son now sits on the thrown. Then without warning the advisors fell upon the Pompey and his family, executing all of them. Caesar arrived hoping to rekindle an old friendship, instead he was presented with Pompey's head as a gift from the royal court. Turns out Egypt was in the middle of a civil war of its own between Ptolemy XIII  and his Greek advisors and aristocrats verse his older sister Cleopatra and factions of the common Egyptians who had started to resent the Greek influence on their ancient home. The king's advisors had hoped to break the stalemate by recruiting Caesar's military support with the presentation of the head of his rival Pompey. Oops, BIG mistake!

Caesar was furious, not only had they denied him a PR victory of absolving Pompey, but they had unceremoniously murdered a man Caesar still considered a friend and his family. Caesar used his troops to seize control of palace in the Egyptian capital of Alexandria and declared that not only was Egypt to be a "client state" of Rome, but also that he would act as final arbitrator in the dispute between factions. Ptolemy's advisors acquiesced to his demands, but told him it my be sometime before they could contact Cleopatra, as her rebel army was well hidden in the wilderness. This of course was a stall, they were buying time until they could figure out how to expel the Roman troops from the palace. But word of events reached Cleo and she was determined to meet the great Caesar. One night a rolled up rug was presented to Caesar as a gift from the "true people of Egypt" as a thank you for helping end the civil war. It was unfurled to reveal the young queen inside. Enchanted by her boldness, and his wrath with Ptolemy's court over Pompey, Caesar would take an increasing favorable stance toward Cleopatra in the arbitration.With talks not going their way, just as Cleo had been smuggled into the city, Ptolemy and the court were smuggled out where they raised an army and besieged Alexandria. Trapped, Caesar's XIIIth defended several incursions into the city along side commoner militia's inspired by and determined to make Cleopatra their queen.

Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII

Caesar knew he would be facing a grave challenge. While the city had plenty of food and water, he had only one legion of trained Roman troops and a few actual fighting men among the Egyptians. It would be a while before any of his other forces could arrive to relieve him. But Caesar's luck would hold; unbeknownst to all Mithridates, the bastard son of the King of Pontus (Turkey's Northeast coast with the Black sea) was near by with his forces as he was taking a tour of the Mediterranean since he was not eligible for his father's throne and looking for a patron. Mithridates broke the siege in a surprise attack and alongside Caesar's XIIIth eventually rode down Ptolemy and his forces. Caesar would later thank Mithridates by supporting him, both claim wise and material, in his conquest of Bosporus (the east coast of the black sea) from his niece Dynamis. With Cleopatra now queen under the Patronage and protection of Rome, the Empire now swung around nearly the entirety of the Mediterranean, but for a small patch of North African Coast just south of Hispania, And only one last faction was left to oppose Caesar's control of it all, Cato, Matella, and the sons of Pompey.